18 December 2023 – Trees and Other Plants
We continued the topic of trees in Irish Celtic Mythology under trees and plants in the landscape.
In the previous session we had covered under the Chieftain Trees oak, hazel, holly and apple trees, leaving ash, yew, rowan, birch and elder to be covered in this session.
i/. The Ash Tree
The tree was powerful and magical, Yggdrasil which holds the world together is an Ash.
It is protective against evil influences, can be used for divination and has healing powers. The healing powers involve rituals which need to be followed closely.
ii/. The Yew Tree
Yew trees can live for a thousand years and are evergreen. The lower branches can grow into the ground and grow up from there. They are a symbol of eternal life and the renewal of life. These too can be used for divination to tell the future and be used to douse for lost goods. Often found in church yards they may have already been there on a pagan site and co-opted in, or a symbol of the regeneration of life.
Some ancient yew groves exist today, they are dark and gloomy. It was thought that you could see the spirit of someone as they departed if you held a yew stick, yew trees were seen as a doorway to the other world.
iii/. The Rowan (Mountain Ash)
Gave protection from evil influences of all kinds. An example was rowan twigs protected babies in cribs. To stay on the good side of fairies the tree should be protected.
iv/. The Birch Tree
Was associated with the return of summer, growth and fertility in animals and people. Jumping over a birch besom was part of the marriage ritual. It was used as a symbol of the woman of the house. It also had protective powers against evil influences including witches, a twig at the threshold gave protection. Contradictorily it was believed witches used birch brooms to fly at night. It was also credited with the power to raise the wind and storms.
v/. The Elder
There were two different views of the elder, possibly one more ancient.
The elder was seen as an ill omen to be feared, in Christianity it was the tree from which Judas Iscariot hanged himself. It was considered an unlucky tree, wood from it would be kept separate and should not be brought into the house and its wood should never be burnt.
The older pre-Christian lore associated it with positive powers. The change over may have been due to propaganda being used to persuade people away from the elder’s original venerated status. Here the burning of the wood may have been seen as disrespectful, permission was sought before a tree would be cut. It was viewed as being inhabited by the Elder Mother/Owd Gal/Old Lady rather than witches, these had powers to protect from witchcraft. It was also considered to have all kinds of healing powers, treating bites, rheumatism, erysipelas, wounds, burns etc. The dried and powered pith was sometimes given if a person was bewitched.
The next session will look at some traditions relating to the Green Man.
20 November 2023 – Trees and Other Plants
We broadened the topic of the landscape by looking a trees and plants starting with trees.
1/. Trees live for a long time, are big, strong with a lifespan beyond those of humans. They move and make noises with the winds
Most ancient civilisations would have sacred trees, they were venerated. We have a love for trees now but they have ancient sacred memories associated with them too. Genesis has the tree of life and tree of knowledge so have been seen as wise. Irminsul the tree of life venerated by the Saxons may be the origin of the English Maypole. Yggdrasil, the world tree from Norse Mythology held the universe together.
Not all tree were good, The Wild Wood of Northern Europe has a dark ominous view of them.
2/. Trees in Irish Celtic Mythology
The Chieftain Trees were the most important and included oak, hazel, holly, apple, ash, yew and fir.
i/. Oak – we looked at the Oak in detail, as it was the most important.
It has a powerful spirit, in winter the spirit goes to the mistletoe which is frequently found on it. A protector against lightning, for the God fearing. Links to Thor. Associated with fertility and thus with marriages. Newly married couples would dance around Marriage Oaks. Couples would marry in church and process to the oak tree.
Healing powers – an iron nail driven into the oak would cure tooth ache, water from hollows in the tree would cure ulcers.
Some stories were attached to existing traditions. Oak Apple Day 29th May took existing traditions appropriated by the Royalists to commemorate the restoration of Charles II. This was very popular, sprigs of oak were worn on coats, sprigs in churches, houses. The origins were probably from May Day.
ii/. Hazel – hidden knowledge. 9 hazel trees surrounded the Celtic Well of Knowledge. Hazel rods were used to search for hidden things, suspected thieves, water, minerals, metals.
iii/. Holly – Protective, belonged to the fairy folk. Not generally allowed in churches due to their pagan associations. If cut one had to apologies to the tree.
iv/. Apple Tree – Symbol of youth, strength, and healing. An ancient symbol of fruitfulness and fertility. Apple trees should never be cut down and should be honoured. There was a tradition of wassailing the apple where an offering of cider-soaked bread would be made. These were serious ceremonies where the whole family from eldest to youngest were expected to attend but are more light-hearted in modern times.
16 October 2023 – Hill Figures, The Glastonbury Zodiac and Mazes
We continued the topic of hill figures in the landscape.
1/. We discussed the possible link between hill figures and folk legends concerning giants
The Long Man of Wilmington was said to be the outline of a giant who was killed in battle. A figure that was once at Plymouth Hoe was said portray the giant Gogmagog, who was killed in combat with Brutus’ champion Corineus.
In the 1950s, the archaeologist T. C. Lethbridge carried out a prolonged investigation of the Gogmagog Hills in Cambridgeshire, in search of a hill figure of the same giant. He claimed to have discovered several figures, but his claims have largely been dismissed.
In a similar fashion, in 1929 Katherine Maltwood claimed that she had discovered the figures of a huge prehistoric zodiac marked out by roads, lanes, field boundaries, watercourses and earthworks in the area around Glastonbury. The centre of the zodiac was occupied by a figure of King Arthur at Glastonbury Tor. Mrs Maltwood’s claims have largely been discounted.
2/. We also considered the ancient mazes – convoluting pathways cut into the turf, or marked out by rocks and stones – that have survived in Britain and on the continent. The purpose of these mazes is unknown, but it has been suggested that some of them may have been used by church men as paths for contemplation; or they may have been used for ritual dances, with the dancers spiralling in and out of the maze along the paths.
18 September 2023 – Rivers, Lakes and Springs Folklore and Hill Figures
1/. We continued the topic of features associated with the British Landscape.
We completed our discussion of folklore associated with inland water, and legends that connect Celtic goddesses to rivers as the sprits of the water. We questioned if there was a connection between these, the waters are dangerous, there are obvious warnings contained. It is possible that there are folk memories of the goddesses and spirits from pagan times.
There were beliefs that rivers demanded a quota of drownings over a period of time, some said per year, others every seven years. We also looked at the importance of the recovery of the bodies of the drowned. There were rituals used to locate where the bodies were. It was important for the bereaved to bury them and show respect.
We looked at the folklore related to Aine an Irish Celtic sun goddess/earth mother/mother earth figure and the creation of Lough Gur in Ireland. She created the lough as a young woman by leaving the top off a well or she was caught by St Patrick as an old woman as she was urinating and that created the lough.
There are many stories in mainland Britain where women left the lid off a well creating lakes and lochs. Very few of them related to men. They may have been warnings to protect your precious water source, the water gods could also be dangerous. Possibly there are links to the memories of the great flood myth which has lots of stories all over the world.
2/. We started a new subtopic of hill figures in the landscape.
White Horses
Most existing white horses are from the late C18th and early C19th due to them becoming fashionable. These were mainly in Wiltshire due to its topography and the chalk. A few of these may have earlier figures underneath or Iron Age forts or enclosures nearby.
The white horse at Uffington is the oldest surviving horse. It is 120 metres long. It has a stylised shape. It predates the Norman Conquest in 1066 and the most likely contenders for its creators are the Celts around 1000 BCE. There is a hill fort by it which is likely to be of the same time.
The stylised shape of the horse is quite common in Celtic metal work and the Atrebates tribe have them on their coins. It may be dragon not a horse. There is a Dragon Hill just opposite and the story is that the dragon was killed by St George and the grass did not grow where the blood was spilt.
Human Figures
We looked at two the 180ft Cerne Abbas Giant in Dorset and the 230ft Long Man of Wilmington.
There a number of theories of the origins of the Cerne Abbas Giant. It had an Iron Age enclosure above it and it is likely to have been involved in fertility rites. We looked at possible dating information/clues for it; the best guess being Celtic.
The Long Man of Wilmington is possibly Saxon or Romano British. The figure may have had more detail such as eyes as it was almost lost in the turf and was reinstated by white painted bricks. There is a giant legend associated with it where two giants fought and the figure is the outline left in the hillside of the one which was killed.
We’ll finish this sub topic next time and start a new one.
21 August 2023 – British Rock Formations Folklore
We continued the topic of features associated with the British Landscape.
In the session we carried on with our discussion of folklore associated with stone circles, standing stones, burial chambers etc; petrification legends, stones that are impossible to count, stones that have the ability to move.
Many standing stones and stone circles are said to be able to move, to drink from nearby streams or to dance. It is suggested that originally it would have been the people who visited the stones who danced, or poured water over the stone as an offering.
Long Meg and her Daughters are said to be a coven of witches who were turned to stone by the Scottish magician and alchemist Michael Scott.
Callanish Stone Circle on the island of Lewis is said to be giants who were turned to stone by St. Kieran. There is also a folktale concerning a white cow that appeared out of the sea at a time of famine. She gave milk to all, until a malignant witch milked her dirty and the cow vanished. Possibly offended by the greed and disrespect that the witch had shown.
We also began to consider folklore connected to inland water, and legends that connect Celtic goddesses to rivers as the sprits of the water; Boann and the River Boyne, Sinnan and the Shannon, Deva and the Dee, Sabrina and the Severn etc.
17 July 2023 – British Rock Formations Folklore
We continued the topic of features associated with the British Landscape.
In the previous session we had broken the topic into three parts and completed the first section of rocks and rock formations with healing properties.
i/. Natural Rocks and Rock Formations & Stones with Healing Powers
ii/. Natural Rock Formations & Stones with Powers of Fertility
iii/. Natural Rock Formations & Stones connected to Oath taking etc.
In this session we completed the second two groups and started a new section of Stone circles, Standing stones etc.
1/.
1.1 Natural Rock Formations & Stones with Powers of Fertility
These included examples of ensuring female fertility and for easing childbirth and one example of male fertility from Boho, Enniskillen. Then we looked at stones relating to good harvests, fine weather, or good catches at sea. In one example in the Western Isles Scotland weather stones were treasured by families and clans; these stone were not always big and were looked after in houses, kept wrapped (often in flannel) and washed in water or milk.
A lot of these stories were in Scotland and Northern Ireland.
We discussed why stones might have been used in these rituals.
1.2 Natural Rock Formations & Stones connected to Oath taking etc.
We looked at number of these which covered marriages, inauguration of kings, oaths and agreements.
If the stones were not respected there could be consequences. The Deity stone in Penmaenmawr, North Wales it was told that if a person blasphemed or used bad language within arm’s reach of the stone it would strike them. In the legend it was told someone had challenged this, used bad language and had been found battered and trampled to death beside the stone.
We looked at why stones may have been used for this, perhaps because they are fixed and a constant and somehow these attributes could be borrowed by the process used. The use of stones in this way goes back at least as far as the Celts.
2/. Stone circles, Standing Stones etc.
These go back a very long way, certainly to 3500-1000 BCE. They are all over the country and there are lots of examples in Cornwall which has areas which have not been inhabited so remain undisturbed. Not all have folklore attached.
There were a number of common themes such as petrifaction of people who failed to observe the sabbath or are duped by the devil, the number of stones being impossible to count, consequences of trying to count them, offerings being made. There was impact of Christianity on the folklore.
One example in Rollright, Oxfordshire covered a stone circle which had stories relating to a king and his Knights being turned to stone, the stones being impossible to count and the king someday coming back to life.
19 June 2023 – No Session Held
17 April and 15 May 2023 – Heroes in Greek Mythology and British Natural Rock Formations Folklore
In the sessions we the completed the topic of Odysseus, and started themes associated with the British Landscape.
1/. Odysseus
Odysseus was part of the Greek Army which besieged Troy for 10 years. After Troy fell Odysseus set off for Ithaca, however there was a prophecy that it would take him another 10 years to return. He fell foul of Poseidon by blinding one of Poseidon’s sons and gloating about it. That enabled Poseidon to curse him so that he would arrive home with nothing, on a borrowed ship.
On the journey back he annoyed a number of other gods and was beset by storms and lost his men and his ship. He landed on the Island of Ogygia where Calypso a sea nymph fell in love with him at first sight. She offered him a place to stay and immortality if he stayed with her. They had 2 children and he stayed for 7 years but he stilled dreamed of Ithaca.
Not all the gods and goddesses were against him and with the help of them including Leucothoe and Athene he made it back to Ithaca as foretold. Here he was reunited with the faithful Penelope but not before more intervention from the gods where he fought off suitors. She had been expecting him back after the siege of Troy had been broken. She had been pursued for marriage and had kept her suitors at bay as she waited for the prophecy of his return to be fulfilled.
There are two versions of Odysseus’s death, one where he died peacefully and the other, after intervention from the gods, he was killed by his son Telgonus who did not know who he was.
Odysseus was a complicated character. He was at times loyal, resourceful, silver tongued, wise and cunning as well as having warrior characteristics. He was also a leader with no respect for his men, and a liar.
The ancient Greeks liked this though and regarded him as a tactician and heroic warrior.
The Greek gods and goddesses were very hands on with him and impacted his life.
2/. Exploring the British Landscape
We looked at folklore about how the landscape was used and the impact on the landscape starting with rocks.
Rocks have always been regarded as special places, sacred with associations with old gods.
This is the same all over the world with examples such as Mount Fuji, Uluru and Everest.
The links to giants and the devil may have been the pagan gods venerated at the time, downgraded and surviving in folklore.
We broke the topic into 3
- i/. Natural Rocks and Rock Formations & Stones with Healing Powers
- ii/. Natural Rock Formations & Stones with Powers of Fertility
- iii/. Natural Rock Formations & Stones connected to Oath taking etc.
i/. Natural Rocks and Rock Formations & Stones with Healing Powers
We looked in detail at a number of these which are spread across the country.
These could be rocks with holes in which could be passed through. Not all had holes or arches
Sympathetic magic where the strength of the rock can be transferred by contact with it by squeezing through, touching.
By following exacting rituals, it has to be difficult, or it wouldn’t work. Repeating actions a number of times, in the direction of the sun etc..
These may be preserving folklore memory at these sites. Some sun worship. Similar beliefs could be attached to man-made structures.
20 March 2023 – Heroes in Greek Mythology
In the session we the completed the topic of Heracles and started on Odysseus, who is the last Greek hero we shall cover.
1/. Heracles
Heracles’ twelve labours were a way of atoning for his madness (imposed by Hera) for breaking the code by killing the defeated King of the Euboeans and desecrating his body. Whilst in the throes of this madness he killed six of his own children and their partners.
Heracles’ final and most challenging Labour was to go down to the Underworld to bring back the guard dog Cerberus. He accomplished this formidable task with help from the goddess Athene, and with that the gods declared that he had cleansed himself of the sin of killing his children.
Heracles’ Labours were at an end but his adventures continued and his hot-headed nature continued to get him into trouble. After Eursytheus insulted him, Heracles killed three of Eurystheus’ sons in his rage. He murdered a guest in his own house and when the Oracle at Delphi refused to tell him how he could be absolved of this crime he desecrated the holy shrine.
Nevertheless he kept the favour of the gods and when he died (killed by the poison of the Hydra by way of her son Nessus the Centaur) Zeus welcomed his immortal spirit to Olympus. Acclaimed as the greatest of the Greek heroes, he was a hero with flaws.
2/. Odysseus
A formidable warrior with many hero characteristics. He was the son of Laertes the King of the island of Ithaca and Anticleia. Anticleia’s father was Autoclycus the son of Hermes.
Having received the prophecy that if he went to Troy, he would be gone for 20 years and return penniless and alone Odysseus tried to avoid going to Troy which was not usual warrior behaviour.
Odysseus is resourceful, silver tongued, wise and cunning as well as having warrior characteristics. He was also a leader with no respect for his men, and a liar.
The ancient Greeks liked this though and regarded him as a tactician and heroic warrior.
Next session we shall complete the story of Odysseus and start a new folklore topic relating to natural features.
20 February 2023 – Heroes in Greek Mythology
In the session we continued our topic of heroes from Greek mythology by looking at Heracles.
The Greek myths credit Heracles as being the greatest of all the heroes.
His famous Twelve Labours showcase his many hero attributes. Heracles used his hero qualities of superhuman strength, courage, and supreme skill as a warrior to accomplish a series of apparently impossible tasks.
The Labours also illustrate some of the flaws in Heracles’ character. He could be hot-headed and impulsive with a tendency to over-react to situations. Hercules was frequently unable to control his superhuman powers and got himself into trouble as a result. It would seem that the Greeks wanted their heroes to be complex characters with flaws and shortcomings alongside their super powers.
16 January 2023 – Heroes in Greek Mythology
In the session we continued our topic of heroes from Greek mythology.
We completed the story Theseus.
We did a recap of his origins and how he became the accepted heir to the throne of Athens.
His story was as deliberate amalgamation of three characters and how his story was deliberately used to promote an image of a hero. Theseus was not content to be a prince he wanted adventures and emulated the feats of Heracles.
He defeated the fire breathing white bull which had killed hundreds of men and took it up to the Acropolis and sacrificed it. Crete and Athens had been at war for some time and Minos the ruler of Crete had the upper hand with a strong navy. King Minos’s son had been killed and he was due recompense for this, so every year seven youths and seven maidens were sent over to Crete and put in the Labyrinth where they were either killed by the Minotaur or died of thirst/starvation. The story goes that the tribute fell due and Theseus took the place of one of the youths promising if he survived he would fly white sails on his return to indicate he was alive. He went to Delphi to consult the Oracle who told him to put his trust in Aphrodite.
The back story to the Minotaur was that he was the half-brother to Ariadne King Minos’s daughter, his father was the white bull who had mated with Ariadne’s mother. King Minos had a labyrinth constructed to contain him.
Ariadne was smitten as soon as she saw Theseus and offered to help him if he would take her to Athens. Theseus agreed. She told him to take a ball of thread with him and use it to find his way back out. Theseus navigated the Labyrinth and slayed the Minotaur in his sleep and followed the thread back out.
Ariadne guided Theseus and his companions to the harbour where they escaped under the cover of darkness. They sailed to Naxos where Theseus built a shelter for Ariadne and then left her there, breaking his promise to take her to Athens. When she found herself alone she called upon the entire universe for vengeance and Zeus nodded his assent.
Theseus sailed for Athens where he encountered adverse winds which delayed his progress, it took him some time to get there and he forgot about his promise to put up white sails and left the black sails up.
His father Aegeus watched for his son every day and upon seeing the ship with the black sails swooned and fell into the Aegean Sea and was killed. Some say Theseus did this deliberately. The original warning by the Oracle had finally come true as Aegeus died of grief.
Theseus became ruler of Athens killing his opponents and setting up a federation of states, a law court and coins with the image of a bull on them. The mythology also credits Theseus with more adventuring, leaving counsellors and advisors in place whilst he was away.
His adventures also include encounters with the Amazons and the taking of Queen Antiope with whom he had Hippolytus. He had an alliance with Deucalion the ruler of Crete, whose daughter Phaedra he married, casting Queen Antiope aside. Antiope attacked them at their wedding and she was hunted down and killed.
Theseus’ grandfather Pittheus adopted Hippolytus as his heir.
There followed Greek tragedy where gods were offended, Theusus’ wife Phaedra was enchanted to fall in love with her stepson Hippolytus, was rejected, and ended with both of them dying.
Another convoluted story involving abducting Helen of Sparta (later of Troy) when she was very young and the consequences of his actions. He ended up with Hades inviting him to sit in the Chair of Forgetfulness in the underworld from where eventually Heracles rescued him. During this time the Spartans marched into Athens and set up a Regent.
When Theseus eventually returned he was seriously weakened and unable to do anything so set sail to Crete, he was blown off course and took shelter on Skyros where its ruler Lycomedes initially welcomed him before throwing Theseus to his death from a cliff.
During his life Theseus showed some very bad judgement, not thinking before he acted with some severe consequences for those around him, offended the gods and treated women badly (for example Ariadne and Antiope). This may explain why he did not get a hero’s end.
The next session we shall start on Heracles